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THE APPLE 
KING OF FRUITS 

Practical Facts and Suggestions 
AbouL Its Culture ^ ^ ^ 

By GEORGE T, POWELL, President Agri- 
cultural Experts Association of New York 





THE APPLE, KING OF FRUITS 




Propagation 

MUSHROOM may complete its growth in twenty-four hours, but 
an apple tree not in a century. Hence, in planting this most 
desirable of all fruit trees, it is of vital importance that the best 
conditions be combined in the tree itself. This should be fol- 
lowed by the best methods of after care and management. 

There are questions that come to those who are interested in 
the planting of trees which are overlooked by many writers who 
do not sufficiently treat many points, or even make them clear 
to the inexperienced, taking for granted that they do not require plain infor- 
mation in its varied details. In the preparation of this brief treatise no opera- 
tion in orchard management however small, will be considered unimportant. 

From the long life and value of an apple tree its propagation becomes of 
the first consideration. The general practice followed by the tree grower or 
the nurseyman is to obtain the seeds of apples in the pomace taken from the 
cider mills. These are planted and five or six months later the seedlings are 
budded with the desired varieties. To the uninitiated it may seem peculiar that 
nearly all the apple trees now growing are made up of parts of two trees, the 
root grown from the seed of anj"^ apple, and the crown, taken from the desired 
variety and grafted on this seedling root when it was young. The fact is that 
seeds do not " come true." Plant loo seeds taken from typical Baldwin apples 
and when the trees mature there may not be even one tree which will bear 
Baldwin fruit. 

In budding or grafting the seedlings it has long been the practice to take 
the buds or scions from the young growing trees in the nursery. Trees that 
are propagated in this way have no particular character. They are without any 
special quality excepting one which is most prominent, that of growth. Where 
buds or grafts are continuously taken from young and growing trees in the 
nursery rows they are given the vegetative tendency or habit, and under good 
culture often continue, for many years after being planted, to bear little or no 
fruit. It is not uncommon to see trees growing ten or twelve years and often 
fifteen before any fruit is borne. 

A better plan for propagation is to select the buds or grafts from trees that 
are mature and bearing fruit, those that have known and established qualities, 
among which should be vigor, early bearing, productiveness and uniformity in 
the size and shape of the fruit. These qualities are influenced by cultivation 
and fertilizing to a large extent, but in some trees they are inherent, and when 
such are discovered there is great advantage in propagating from them. 

In growing trees in the nursery sufficient thought has not been given to the 
difference in seedlings. In truth they vary as much as the kinds that are 
budded or grafted upon them. Some are stronger and more vigorous than 
others, in which case, the union formed between the bud and the stock is more 
congenial and has greater firmness. Where such conditions are obtained the 
trees will be free from many of the diseases and weaknesses from which their 
weaker companions are liable to fall long before maturity. 

The usefulness of an apple tree may be extended over so long a period, 
even beyond a century, that more thought and care should be given to these 



important principals in its propagation. A few nurseymen are now beginning 
to work in this direction. 

Location for an Orchard 

After a superior tree has been produced it should be provided with such 
conditions or environment ' as will enable it to best utilize the advantages 
gained from good propagation. The choice of location is first in importance. 
This, if possible, should be upon a more or less elevated piece of land. The 
exposure is not essential though if a choice can be made a northern or westerly- 
slope is best. The reason for this is that there will be less danger from iujury 
to the trunks of the trees on account of winter sunshine which upon southern 
slopes sometimes proves injurious. The freezing and thawing that sometimes 
occurs when the sun shines directly upon the bodies of the trees in midwinter 
will cause what is known as " sun scald," which injures the bark. Where the 
land is rolling or hilly this choice of an elevated location is procurable, but if 
it is generally level, there is little choice to be made. On an elevation there 
is good natural drainage of water. Also during frosty periods blossoms and 
fruit suffer there less than upon a level position. Cold air, like water will 
always seek a lower level. Hence, it will roll down the hillsides upon frosty 
nights and the blossoms on an elevated place, if only of a few feet, will fre- 
quently escape injury when those on the lower level will be killed. 

The freer circulation of air on a higher point ensures greater freedom from 
blights and fungous diseases while the longer period of sunshine through the 
day will give higher and finer color to the fruit. For the same reason there is 
greater freedom from insects that are injurious as they do not inhabit exposed 
situations, but rather seek sheltered places. 

The Soil 

Top Soii,s : The apple will exist on a great variety of soils. Even on a 
poor soil it will struggle to maintain its life and reproduce through its fruit, 
as reproduction is the real purpose of all animal and vegetable life. There 
are, however, certain kinds of soils that are much better suited to the develop- 
ment of apple trees than others. A soil that contains some clay in its compo- 
sition is excellent. Trees will grow in a stiff clay and do well, but such soil 
is often over-saturated with water and trees do not grow well with too much 
water about their roots. Air, which is necessary for the roots of the trees, as 
well as for all plants, is frequently shut out by a heavy clay soil. Such soil un- 
less well under drained will hold water for a long time particularly after heavy 
rains. Soil that is made of a mixture of clay and sand called a clay loam is 
admirable and would be the first choice. 

Trees will grow on a sandy soil, but they will not grow as large, neither 
will they produce as much fruit. The apples that are produced on the sandy 
soil will not keep as long as those from a clay or a clay loam soil. The trees 
and the fruit on sandy soil are more subject to insect attacks, for insects thrive 
better in a dryer soil than in one which holds water a greater length of time. 
There are, however, variations in sandy soils that give loams which not only 
produce fine trees but an abundance of excellent and beautiful fruit. 

Sub-Soils : In selecting'land for a country home or for farming, gardening, 
or fruit growing it is important to know about the character of the sub-soil. 
After examining the surface soil it is well to dig or bore down to the sub-soil 
to knew of its character. The sub-soil in its organization is generally closer 
and firmer than the surface soil and holds water for a much longer time for 
which reason it becomes a most important factor. If the sub-soil should be 
very hard and almost entirely void of vegetable matter with its particles of 
fine clay closely knit together it is known as " hardpan." This is impervious 
to water and will therefore make the top soil soggy. If this hardpan should 



lie up to within eight or ten inches of the surface it will be most undesirable 
for any purpose, for it will keep the surface soil too wet in the spring after 
heavy rains and in long dry periods will prevent the underground water from 
rising and distributing itself through the particles of the surface soil. 

A sandy soil that may have underneath it a close sub-soil at a distance of 
several feet below would be very excellent for it would be abundantly supplied 
with water at all times, and good drainage of the surface soil would be assured. 
A soil of this nature may be worked very soon after a rain, an advantage worth 
considering. There is a great variation in the combination of clay and sand in 
soils. If there is a good depth of surface soil varying from nine to sixteen 
inches and if it is underlaid with a fairly close sub-soil (which may be deep- 
ened with a plow occasionally one or two inches and mixed with the surface 
soil,) excellent trees and fruit may be grown. Districts where there is lime 
stone in the soil are particularly adapted to fruit growing. 

Preparation of the Soil for Planting 

Before planting trees it is well to give the soil special preparation, but 
there are no hard and fast rules to which one must rigidly adhere. If one feels 
that he does not want to give time to careful preparation of the land before 
planting, he may take a short cut and yet establish an entirely successful 
orchard. Following the first plan, it would be well to have the fields planted 
in clover, for two years prior to setting the trees. 

When ready to plant, plow the laud in the autumn, excepting in extreme 
northern states as planting at this season is desirable. By full planting a gain 
in growth, often of two months, is obtained the following spring, if the season 
is late, wet, and cold and is followed by a dry period. If, however, there is no 
clover in the field, fall plowing should not be done, as the ground would leach 
too severely during the spring rains. If the plowing cannot be accomplished 
in time for spring planting, stakes may be driven, holes dug, and the trees 
planted without plowing, allowing such necessary cultivation to be done at a 
later time. There is much discussion as to whether fall or spring planting is 
the best. Fall planting allows the trees to start growth the following spring 
with other vegetation, instead of having to be delayed until frost is out of the 
ground and until the trees arrive. Many argue that the winter kills many 
newly planted trees, but the gain on the other side of the question is so 
marked that fall planting is highly advisable. Further than that, much better 
trees can be obtained in the fall than in the spring and further still, the nur- 
seymen are as a rule so rushed in the latter season that it is impossible to 
have the trees when otherwise ready. 

In laying the plan for an orchard, first decide upon the distance the trees 
are to be planted, then measure the spaces, and drive down stakes with strips 
of cloth tied to the ends so that they may be readily seen across the field. 
The stakes should be driven on the four sides of the piece of land to be planted 
with one row through the middle each way. Two men may then sight, one 
across the field in one direction to the opposite stake and the other in the other 
direction, while the third may mark the spot where each tree will stand in the 
exact line with the stakes used is sighting. In this way one may be sure just 
where to make the hole for the tree. It is important to have the trees stand 
in exact alignment as there is less danger from injury in cultivation, for, if 
the trees protrude or retreat much, they are more liable to be injured by plows 
and cultivators. If the field to be planted is not a rectangle it is easy for 
one to mark the places for the trees by following out the same general lines 
above mentioned. 

Distances for Planting 

The distance for planting will depend upon the policy that is to be fol- 
lowed. For standard trees of most varieties, 45 feet each way should be given 



that they may have an abundance of room and light. A very general mistake 
is made of planting too closely. In more than half of the orchards in the 
country better apples would be obtained if half of the trees were cut out. 
When trees are set at this wide distance, interplanting may be done with dwarfs. 
These being placed in the centre, between the standard trees 22 1-2 feet apart. 
This plan will prove more profitable as many more trees may be planted to the 
acre and these trees will produce apples for at least 20 years, or until it is neces- 
sary to remove them for the benefit of the standard trees. It will require 
courage to remove these interplanted trees especial]}' if they are bearirg good 
crops, but it is essential to the development of the trees that are to remain 
permanently. If they are all left too long they will overcrowd both in the 
tops and at the roots and as a result the orchard will deteriorate. It is some- 
times profitable to interplant once again with trees that are excessively 
dwarfed and which will bear a crop in three years. 

Preparing the Trees for Planting 

In buying trees from the nursery select standard varieties two years old. 
These will be from five to six feet high and will have well developed root sys- 
tems. When the trees are received from the nursery they should be unpacked 
and placed in an open furrow in the soil and the roots covered with earth in 
order to keep them moist and in good condition until they are planted. If, 
by any means, the trees have been long delayed in transportation and seem 
dry and shriveled, they should be thrown in water and left for ten or twelve 
hours, after which they should be covered in the furrow as suggested. 

When ready to plant, the roots should be pruned, cutting away all broken 
pieces and shortening each leg about one-third of its length. Then prune the 
top of the tree, cutting off all branches, except three, leaving those which have 
developed at a distance of three to four inches from each other and from two 
and a half to three feet from the ground after the tree is planted. Then cut 
off the remaining part of the top. The three branches are to form the perma- 
nent top of the tree, and should themselves be cut back one-third to one-half. 
Endeavor not to have the branches opposite each other as they will form a 
crotch which later when heavy loads of fruit are borne, is apt to split or break 
apart. 

This severe pruning may seem sacreligious, but it is very essential to suc- 
cessful planting. The reason is obvious. When a tree is taken from a nursery 
much of the root system is lost and the top does therefore not balance with 
the roots. By this pruning an equilibrium is made which will allow the trees 
to continue in a normal manner, and far exceed any growth made by a tree 
planted as it comes from the nursery. 

Planting 

Dig a hole large enough to allow careful spreading of the roots. Loosen 
the soil at the bottom, spread the roots out as well as possible and put the re- 
maining earth over them to a depth of about four inches, packing it as firmly 
and closely as possible especially about the roots. One man should hold 
the tree in a vertical position and step on the soil, pressing it firmly in place, 
while another man with a shovel should supply the earth until the work is 
finished. Tramping is important as the earth must be made firm over the 
roots. By this method of planting 100 per cent, should live and grow. When 
the tree is in position and surrounded by earth it should be 2 1-2 inches deeper 
than it was in the nursery, the latter distance being easily determined by cx- 
aming the tree before planting. 

Cultivation 

When an orchard is planted the work should not end there, though, in too 
many instances further effort ceases. This is why there has never been over- 

4 



production of apples. If all the trees that are planted lived to produce fruit 
there would be many more apples than could be sold or used, Vjut for the 
want of proper cultivation and care, not 50 per cent, of the trees mature. In 
commercial orchards, the soil should be theroughly tilled. This operation 
will keep the trees in a vigorous growing condition. If the planting is done 
in a small or suburban lot, plowing and cultivation with horses may not be 
practicable ; but the soil may be spaded or dug about the trees even if for only 
a distance of four or five feet, and the result will be beneficial. The soil may 
be raked or hoed frequently throughout the season thus keeping a dust 
mulch over the top. 

In the commercial orchard it is well to plant corn for the first two years, 
as this will shade the young trees during the hot months of July and August, 
and the cultivation given the corn is excellent for the trees. Potatoes may be 
grown providing five hundred or six hundred pounds of special potato ferti- 
lizer is applied to the acre for each crop grown, otherwise, the soil will deter- 
iorate. It is not wise to sew the small grains or to grow grass in young 
orchards. It is sometimes desirable to grow small fruits such as strawberries, 
currants and raspberries in the open spaces between the trees, leaving however, 
a space of not less than six feet along the row of trees for cultivation. These 
crops, if grown, should also be fertilized annually with five to six hundred 
pounds per acre of a commercial fertilizer. After the trees begin to bear fruit 
especially where they are interplanted with fillers, it is better not to grow 
other crops, but rather plow the soil in the early spring, harrow and cultivate 
it weekly until about the first of July. At that time sow red and crimson clover 
in equal parts at the rate of 18 pounds per acre, and cover the seed by harrow- 
ing the ground lightly. 

Clover is so-called leguminous crop. In the presence of certain bacteria 
small nodules are produced on the roots which have the power of gathering the 
free nitrogen of the air. In this manner, it is therefore possible to give the 
soil nitrogen without spending money for fertilizer. Another object of clover 
culture is to cover the soil during the winter, which is highly necessary after 
the fine tillage it has received, to save the washing away of valuable fine 
particles of soil during the heavy rains of autumn and winter. Still another 
purpose in sowing clover is for the improvement of the soil texture. Clover 
roots penetrate deeply and bring up from the sub-soil unused plant food. It 
also adds to the vegetable matter or humus which is an important factor in 
holding and conserving the moisture. 

The clover should be plowed under, the following spring, the soil again cul- 
tivated until the early part of July and then re-seeded with the clover mixture. 
Crimson clover being an annual will grow rapidly and make a large plant by 
the latter part of the autumn. The red clover having a longer tap-root will stand 
the winter better and will frequently come through the spring in good con- 
dition, while the crimson will be more or less killed by the freezing and thaw- 
ing weather. The crimson clover, however, has done its work the preceding 
autumn and has left in the soil a good supply of nitrogen. Do not cut and re- 
move the clover, rather leave it to nourish the soil. 

There is much interest and discussion over a system of mulching the soil 
by allowing the grass to grow, then cutting it and placing it about the trees. 
While there may be a few favorable instances with naturally moist soil where 
this system will work quite satisfactorily, yet in the great majority of loca- 
tions, this plan will not be wise to adopt. The tillage combined with the 
sowing of the clover as a cover crop will give far better trees and fruit. In the 
mulching system there is always greater trouble from insects and vermin. 
Field mice find this an excellent place in which to harbor and many trees 
have been ruined by them. Even though wire protection is placed about the 
trees, a deep fall of snow will permit the mice to girdle the trees above the 
wire. From these points it will be seen that it is not wise to plant orchards 
upon land that cannot be cultivated. There are, however, many orchards 
planted among rocks which live and thrive to a certain extent. 



Varieties 

In choosing varieties for planting, it is well to have them extend over all 
seasons, summer, autumn and winter. Apples now are so generally used, that 
they are wanted even in times when peaches and other summer fruits are plen- 
tiful. It is difficult to recommend varieties for all sections of the countrj'. 
Those that do well in the north are not all suited to the south. The west also 
has conditions especially favorable to certain varieties such as soil and climatic 
fitness. An excellent rule to be governed by, is to study in each section, the 
varieties which are known to have done well over a long period, and to plant 
more largely of these varieties. For the northern and middle states a very 
good general list from which to select would be : for summer, Astrachan, Wil- 
liams, Sweet Bough, Yellow Transparent ; for autumn, Alexander, Graveusteiu, 
Fall Pippin, Maiden Blush, Jersey Sweet, Duchess, Wealthy ; for winter. 
Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, King, Hubbardston, Sutton, 
Roxbury Russet, Mcintosh, Wagener and Lady Sweet. For warmer sec- 
tions, such as the south and southwest, Jonathan, Stayman Winesape, Grimes, 
Golden, York Imperial, Gayno and Huntsman are among excellent varie- 
ties. The Ben Davis is well adapted to these sections, but it is lacking in flavor, 
and too many of this variety are being planted. Among some choice varieties 
for home use are the Chenango Strawberry, Richards Graft, Porter, Pound 
Sweet, Rambo, Esopus Spitzenburg and Cox Orange Pippin. The Cox Orange 
Pippin is a very rare English apple, but gives promise of being adapted to the 
middle sections of the U.S. The Newtown Pippin is well suited to the Hudson 
Valley, Va., and the northwestern states, Oregon and Washington. 

Description of Varieties 

The Astrachan is an early summer apple, yellow in color, splashed with 
red, excellent for cooking, and when allowed to ripen on the tree is a good 
dessert apple. Becoming somewhat soft on ripening, it is not suitable to ship 
long distances. 

The WiI/LIAMS is a beautiful red apple of excellent flavor, a favorite in 
Boston and other New England markets ; it follows the Astrachan in season 
and is strictly a dessert apple. 

The Sweet Bough is one of the best early summer sweet apples, is j^ellow 
in color, with a slight blush, it is highly prized as a dessert apple, and is superi- 
or for baking. 

The YeIvLOW Transparent, a Russian introduction, is a very early sum- 
mer variety, pale yellow in color when ripe, and is excellent for cooking. On 
account of its delicate skin, which easily shows marks, it has to be handled 
with great care. 

The Duches is another of the Russian varieties. The tree is very hardy 
and bears early, often at two and three years, while the fruit varies from medi- 
um to large in size, is yellow striped with bright red and is highly attractive. 
It is tender, juicy, crisp, and excellent for culinary uses, but it is too acid for 
a dessert fruit. Its season is August and September. 

The Weai^Thy is a tree of great hardiness, and often bears at two years of 
age. The fruit is about medium size and pale yellow with strips and splashes 
of red. It is a heavy bearer, the fruit requiring thinning. It is of good qual- 
ity for all uses. 

The GravENSTEIn exceeds the average size, is yellow overlaid with strips 
of bright and dark red, and is very attractive in color. It is one of the finest 
for culinary uses, and is equally good for dessert. It ripens unequally, and 
needs to be picked several times as the apples drop easily when near maturity, 

Thi, Alexander is another of the Russian varieties, and a large and very 
showy apple. It is striped red in color, and has only culinary qualities. The 
fruit is subject to decay, and the trees to blight. It is a popular variety in the 
market. 



Thk Fali, Pippin is one of the best of the later autumn varieties, ripening 
in September and October. It is large in size, is a rich yellow color and excellent 
for all purposes. It is subject to the Apple Scab and needs thorough spraying, 
with Bordeaux mixture. 

The Maiden Blush is a beautiful yellow apple with a blush which makes 
it one of the most attractive ; the quality is not of the highest, but is most ex- 
cellent for cooking purposes. Under good culture, and thinning, the tree 
bears regular annual crops. This is one of the most profitable autumn 
varieties. 

Among the few autumn sweet apples, the JERSEY SwHETis one of the best. 
Its color is a bright red and yellow, and it is good for both dessert and culinary 
use. Its season is September and early October. 

The Northern Spy may be said to lead all later varieties for excellence in 
every respect. The tree is hardy and vigorous in growth. It has a strong 
root system, differing in this respect from most other varieties. This makes 
the tree a desirable one upon which to top work other choice but delicate 
growing varieties as it imparts greater vigor to them. The fruit is large, the 
color yellow covered with streaks and splashes of red and carmine which mkkes 
it most attractive in appearance. When full grown it is covered with a deli- 
cate bloom which adds to its attractiveness and beauty. The flesh is crisp 
tender and juicy while its flavor is the highest, with a spritely pleasant acid' 
and is fine either for dessert or culinary use. This very excellent variety is not 
adapted to general culture. It is best when grown in the Hudson Valley 
north of Poughkeepsie, in the Champlain district, and in central and western 
New York. It is also grown in its highest excellence in Michigan, Vermont 
New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and the northern belt of the Connecticut' 
When grown in too warm sections it ripens prematurely, has poor flavor 
and keeping quality, often decaying on the tree before it matures. When 
grown in a warm climate, the tree is not so good for top working. 

The Bai^dwin is the great leading commercial winter apple, more of which 
are to be found in the market than all other kinds combined. It is large in 
size, bright red in color, and has excellent shipping and keeping qualities 
The tree is vigorous in growth, but in very cold sections is not entirely hardy' 
The Baldwin reaches highest perfection on Long Island, in southern Connectil 
cut, and in the Hudson Valley. Grown in these localities, on account of its 
very fine flavor, it has high dessert quality, but in most sections, its chief 
value is for culinary use. It is particularly valuable for exporting and meets 
with great favor in foreign markets. 

The Rhode Isi^and Greening ranks in value with the Baldwin ; is particu- 
larly adapted to New York State, but is well suited to New England, and is 
as widely disseminated as the Baldwin. The tree grows to large' size, is 
spreading in habit and much of the time bears annual crops. The fruit is 
large, green in color turning somewhat yellow when ripe. When grown to its 
highest perfection, it frequently has a handsome blush of red on one side 
There is no better apple than the Greening for all purposes, while its crisp" 
tender flesh, delicious juiciness and high flavor make it one of the best dessert 
apples. There are known records where this choice old variety has sold for 
|6.oo per bushel box. It is particularly prized by all New Knglanders. 

The Tompkins King ranks very high as a dessert apple ; is large in size a 
beautiful red in color with yellow shading when fully ripe, is tender, crisp 
juicy, with a high flavor, the apples often selling for I1.50 per dozen. The tree 
is constitutionally defective, being subject to several diseases, the most serious 
being canker and collar rot. By top working it upon the Spy, or Tolman Sweet 
trees, the King may be profitably grown in commercial orchards, and thus 
propagated, will live to 100 years of age. 

The Hubbardston, like the King is an early winter apple, in season from 
December to February, and is an excellent dessert variety. Its color is yellow 

7 



streaked red, its size is large and its flesh crisp and tender, juicy and sub- 
acid. The tree bears early, usually in three or four years, annually, and, like 
the King, is subject to disease and is improved by top working. 

The Sutton, usually called Sutton Beauty, is of the Baldwin type, and is a 
dessert apple. Its color is yellow splashed with carmine which makes it high- 
ly attractive in appearance. It is about the size of the Baldwin, and is in 
season from November to March. This variety is also better when top worked 
in which case it is a strong and upright grower. The tops of the trees need to 
be cut back frequently to keep them low headed and the fruit should not be 
picked until it is highly colored. 

The Roxbury Russet is the best of the Russet family, it is a late keeper 
and is at its best in April and May after most other varieties have gone. 
The tree is strong, hardy and vigorous, while the fruit is of very excellent 
quality. It is a particularly valuable apple to ship to southern markets, and 
should be included in every commercial orchard. 

The McInTOSH is of more recent introduction, but in point of fine quality 
rank's among the best. It originated in Canada, and is being quite widely 
planted. It is better adapted to northern New York, and northern New Eng- 
land where it is a winter variety. In warmer sections it ripens too early in 
the autumn, is subject to apple scab, and would be disappointing if planted 
commeicially. The color of the fruit is a deep red, the flesh is very tender, 
crisp, juicy, and highly aromatic, with a flavor that is exceeding agreeable. 
It is a tender fruit, and will not bear shipping long distances except when 
well packed. This variety should be wrapped and shipped in boxes. 

The WaGENER is a high quality variety ranking among the best. The fruit 
surpasses medium size, is a beautiful deep red in color with some yellow shad- 
ing. The flesh is tender, crisp, juicy, sub-acid, of high flavor, and is one of the 
best dessert apples. After one has had the luxury of the Wagener for some 
time he will feel somewhat dissatisfied with most other kinds, however good 
they may be. The tree is not an over strong grower and it would be improved 
by top working on a more vigorous variety. It begins to bear in three or four 
years, and is particularly valuable for planting in the filler system- 

The Lady Sweet is one of the best long keeping winter apples, frequently 
good in May. It is above medium size, handsome red in color and having a 
thick skin, is an excellent shipper and export apple. It is especially good for 
baking. The tree is a hardy and vigorous grower, and is adapted to a wide 

territory. 

For the warmer sections The Jonathan is one of the most valuable varie- 
ties although it does not grow to so large a size in the northern states. If given 
extra culture and fertilizing, it may be extensively grown and is of the very 
highest quality. The color is a beautiful deep red ; in size, medium ; the flesh, 
crisp, tender, juicy, and of a distinctly spicy flavor. It is a beautiful as well 
as excellent dessert apple. The tree does not grow to so large a size, but bears 
very heavily. If the fruit is thinned, the tree will bear annually. 

ThB Grimes is a variety of high merit and especially adapted to a southern 
climate. It may be grown for home use in southern New England, and the 
southern portions of the middle states. While the apple is yellow in color and 
does not sell so well as red fruit, it is one of the best of the dessert kinds, pos- 
sessing exceedingly good quality. 

The Ben Davis in appearance is one of the most attractive apples, but its 
quality is inferior, being good only for culinary use. It is best adapted to the 
•warmer climate of the south, but even there it is being grown in too large quan- 
tities as buyers are beginning to learn that consumers do not want too many 
of them. 

The Gang resembles the Ben Davis, but is somewhat better in quality. 

The Huntsman is another variety that succeeds in the South. It is some 

8 



what subject to scab and to bitter rot, two serious diseases, but its quality is 
good, and it comes under the list of dessert varieties. 

The York Imperiai^ is a handsome red apple and ranges from fair to good 
quality. It has the peculiarity of growing unequal in shape, one side of the 
apple being higher than the other. The tree is subject to Twig Blight, but 
the variety is in favor with southern planters. 

Among the Crabs are some excellent and very beautiful apples. The Excel- 
sior leads in size, and is nearly as large as Jonathan, equally beautiful in 
color and of excellent dessert and culinary quality. This is one of the largest 
and best of its class. 

The Hyslop Crab is large in size, is of a beautiful red color, covered with a 
delicate blue bloom. 

The Large Red and Yellow Siberians are medium in size and very pro- 
lific in bearing. These are used largely for jelly and for pickling, and are 
excellent for these purposes. 

The Transcendant is another excellent crab of good size and quality. 

The varieties named constitute the best and most desirable among the 
large number in this class. 

Dwarfed Trees 

Excepting in gardens, dwarf trees have not been much cultivated in our 
country. With the destructive work of some of the scale insects, and the increas- 
ing numbers of injurious insects, this class of trees is receiving more thought and 
consideration. 

There are two types among them. The Doucin type are propagated by 
budding the desired variety on Doucin stocks or roots, making half dwarf trees 
that will grow from i8 to 20 feet high. The Paradise type are smaller trees and 
are more strictly dwarfed, being grown on Paradise roots, making smaller 
dwarfed trees. The advantage of these are that they may be more efifectually 
spraj'edand pruned with less labor,while the fruit may be thinned and all imper- 
fect specimens taken off. The Doucin trees may be planted 20 feet apart each 
way, which would make no to the acre, and the Paradise planted between them 
in one direction, making them stand 10 feet from the Doucin trees, thus making 
upon an acre about 218 trees. The Doucin Dwarfs may also be planted between 
standard trees, the standards being planted 45 feet each way and the Doucin in 
between each way also at 20 feet. The Doucin trees come into bearing, if grafted 
with certain varieties, in three or four years, and they may be allowed to bear 
for from 15 to 20 years before it will be necessary to remove them. The 
dwarfed trees are well suited to suburban planting, as they require less space. 
The trees should be planted deeper than standards; the union between the bud 
and the stock seen by a slight enlargement at the junction, should be set at least 
3 inches below the level of the soil. The reason for this deep setting is that the 
roots of the dwarfed trees are shorter, and do not extend out so far into the 
soil; hence when the trees are loaded with fruit, they are liable to blow over, 
as the tops become larger and the roots cannot hold them. With a much larger 
number of trees to the acre, and with all fruit made practically perfect, the 
financial results are most satisfactory. The cultivation must be intensive, and 
all methods will cost more than those generally practiced with standard trees, 
but it will be well worth the time and effort to test on a small scale the value 
of dwarfed tree culture in comparison with standards. The writer has over 
1,000 dwarfed trees, some of which began to produce fruit at two years from 
planting, the third year getting as many as fifty apples to the tree, while on the 
fourth year, very satisfactory quantities of fruit were grown. Most varieties 
grown on standard roots will do equally well grafted on dwarfed stock. 

It is not altogether wise to judge of a new proposition until it has been 
thoroughly tested, and as very few fruit growers have ever tested dwarf apple 

9 



culture in our country on a commercial scale, we are without definite knowledge 
upon the subject. It will be wise, however, to give these trees a fair trial. 

Cultivation of Dwarfed Trees 

The cultivation of dwarfed trees has to be done upon more intensive meth- 
ods than standards. The soil should be thoroughly tilled for about three months. 
By constantly stirring the soil after it is plowed, the fine grains of soil are 
pulverized and thereby more available plant food is liberated. The fine roots 
of the trees as well as all plants obtain the necessary elements by taking up 
water in which these elements are dissolved. Therefore, the finer the soil is made, 
the more nourishment will be liberated, and proportionally greater will be the 
growth of the trees. It is vitally important to obtain as rapid development of a 
dwarfed trees as is consistent with healthy growth. As has been explained 
before, frequent cultivation also tends to conserve the moisture of the soil during 
long, dry seasons. Hence, intensive cultivation serves two purposes. A spring 
tooth harrow and an Acme harrow are two of the best possible tools. Set the 
spring tooth to a depth of 4 inches for the first cultivation, 3 inches for the 
second cultivation, and 2 inches for the third. The Acme harrow should then 
be used to keep the soil perfectly level bj^ stirring the surface from one to one 
and a half inches only. As the soil dries rapidly after plowing, an immediate 
harrowing should follow. 

As the temperature of the air begins to rise rapidly in May and June, the 
water that is in the sub-soil rises to the surface with corresponding rapidity 
and evaporates into the air. Frequent tillage breaks up the capillary passages 
that are formed by this upward pressure of water and prevents evaporation, 
thereby keeping the roots constantly supplied with water and incidentally killing 
the weeds that grow on the surface. 

When the trees come into liberal bearing it is well to apply, once in two 
years, one two-horse load of well rotted stable manure to every 15 trees, and 
on alternate years to apply six pounds of commercial fertilizer containing at 
least 2 per cent of nitrogen, 12 per cent of phosphoric acid and 12 per cent of 
potash to each tree. This should be applied early in the spring after the ground 
has been plowed, and before the harrowing has begun. This method of ferti- 
lizing will keep the trees in vigorous growing condition, such that they will give 
regular annual crops. 

Pruning 

There are few operations about the management of trees that are so little 
understood as pruning. For this reason many trees are not pruned, while those 
that are, frequently are much injured by the process. 

The first year after planting, little pruning will be required. The second 
year, only such branches as are inclined to grow in toward the middle of the 
tree, or those that tend to cross and interfere with other branches, need to be 
cut away. Branches which grow out beyond others should be cut back to give 
the proper balance to the tree. 

The third year the head of the tree will need to be properly shaped by cut- 
ting off the leaders or those branches which grow upward from the centre of 
the tree. Make the trees as low and spreading as possible. If the leading 
branches are four or five feet long, they should be cut back 18 to 24 inches, a 
process which will give more active growth to all side branches. 

If very large trees are desired, which will produce the greatest number of 
barrels of fruit, a pyramidal form should be adopted by leaving a strong leader 
in the center, allowing it to build out branches in all directions. With the 
necessity for control of insect and fungous diseases the low spreading form 
seems more desirable. In cutting off branches small or large, it is essential to 

10 



make the cut close to the body of the trees so that the bark may heal over 
rapidly. Where the branch comes out from the body or from a secondary 
branch there is a slight enlargement at its base. In pruning, cut close to, or 
through this, leaving the two shoulders of the cut as nearly equal as possible 
so that the sap flowing down from the leaves will form acambiumlayer which 
will roll over the cut. Too often branches are cut leaving a stub of from one 
to six inches in length. Decay starts at the ends of these before the bark can 
heal over them, and as a result decay will soon be found in the centre of the 
tree. When pruning the outside branches of a tree, make the cuts as near above 
buds as possible so that they will heal rapidly and leave no small stubs. It is 
well to paint all wounds that are more than one inch in diameter. Any 
kind of paint will answer. Bordeaux mixture or coal tar are commonly used. 
Pruning may be done at any time of the year, although there are certain times 
when certain effects will be produced. If the work is done in winter, when 
the trees are dormant, the effect is to stimulate growth. If it is done in May 
or June, growth is somewhat checked. If the variety is of weak or slow habit 
of growth, prune when the tree is dormant. If, on the other hand, it is strong 
and vigorous, prune in June to give it some check, as this is the time the sap 
does not contribute so much to growth, but rather to the development of tissues, 
which, from that time on to winter, mature and harden to withstand a cold 
temperature. 

It is thought that summer pruning has the effect to induce or hasten the 
development of fruit, spurs and buds, and to bring trees into bearing at an earlier 
date. The writer is carrying on extensive work in this direction and has a large 
number of trees three or four years of age bearing apples freely. Another 
feature of summer pruning is that the growth is apt to be diverted into the 
fruit and leaf buds for the following year. Such buds begin to develop the first 
of July. One special benefit from pruning is to admit the sun freely to the 
foliage of all parts of the tree. It is through the foliage that the food supply 
of a tree is digested. The food materials ascend through the sap wood to the 
leaves, which, aided by the influence of the sun, the taking on of carbon dioxide 
and giving off of oxygen, perform the digestion. This digested sap then works 
down through the cambium layer to the tips of the roots, forming new layers 
of wood, buds, fruit spurs and fruit. 

An open system of pruning that will allow the sun to shine upon all the 
foliage will therefore give the best results in the northern and New Eng- 
land states. In the southern and southwestern states a method entirely opposite 
should be followed ; that of protecting the branches and fruits by shading them, 
leaving the top of the tree quite dense and preventing the sun from scalding the 
fruit. The very high temperatures in these sections often do great damage in 
this respect. 

The thinning of apples should be done when they are grown to one inch in 
diameter, as then defective specimens may be seen and taken off. If there is a 
heavy set of fruit one-third of it should be pruned away. The cost of thinning 
will vary on large trees according to the set of fruit from 45 cents to 55 cents 
per tree, and on young trees from 15 to 18 years of age, from 15 cents to 29 
cents each. 

A fine saw should be used in pruning and also a sharp knife. The blade of 
the saw should be narrow so that it may be turned at any angle, making it possi- 
ble to prune every branch close. For larger work an ordinary seven-point saw 
is advisable. 

Pruning shears are generally most objectionable, as they bruise one side of 
the branch, often cracking it so much that it will not heal rapidly. For clipping 
off the ends of smaller branches, it is often handy, however. 

U 



The Renovating of Old Orchards 

If old orchards have long been neglected, as is generally the case, too severe 

pruning should not be done at one time. It is well to cut out not more than a 

quarter or a third of the over-crowded branches at one time, for when too many 

are cut away, nature will make an effort to replace them by forcing out a great 

number of suckers or small twigs along the bodies and branches of the trees, 

which later will have to be cut off. By cutting less at a time and taking a longer 

period in which to put the old trees in order, labor will be saved, and it will be 

much better for the trees. In the attempted renovation of old orchards, another 

serious mistake is made in cutting away too many small limbs from the long 

main branches. This causes all of the new growth to be made and fruit to be 

grown on their extreme ends, which operation is often followed by breaking 

down of the large branches when heavily laden with fruit. The ordinary system 

of pruning as practiced by the inexperienced is to cut off every branch on every 

main limb until there is merely a bouquet on the end. On the other hand, it is 

wise to leave large branches scattered along the limbs and yet get the open effect. 

Where a tree has been pruned in the wrong manner, a few of the suckers or twigs 

that have started should be saved and allowed to grow, thereby filling up many 

of the large holes in the top of the tree or filling in the centre to a certain extent. 

Suckers may be allowed to grow every five or six feet, and they will be found 

to bear excellent fruit. Where the trees have very high tops they may be cut down 

ten or twelve feet, the ends being cut in a slanting direction to prevent decay. 

Not more than two branches should be cut in one year, as the shock might 

otherwise be great enough to injure the tree. In this manner old trees may be 

gradually renewed, tops lowered, and larger crops of excellent apples grown on 

the new branches. The ordinary lo-foot pruning hook is admirable for much 

of this work. 

Spraying for Protection Against Insects and Disease 

This has become an adjunct in the care of trees that a few years ago was 
unknown. With the more extensive planting of recent years, conditions have 
been created for the increase of all kinds of insects that prey upon cultivated 
trees and plants. Our international trade relations have become so greatly 
extended, that we have brought into our country from foreign ports a number 
of new and formidable pests. The San Jose scale, the gypsy and brown-tail 
moth, and others like the cabbage and currant worms, are causing immense 
annual losses. 

There are two types of insects that need to be known and understood if 
they are to be intelligently fought. One, the leaf-eating insects which have 
biting jaws and chew or bite the foliage or fruit. Two, the sucking insects 
which have piercing tubes with which they suck the sap from leaves and 
branches. In this class is the aphis or plant louse. The first class has to be 
treated by means of spraying poisons upon the foliage and fruit. The other 
type is sprayed with oily substances that come into immediate contact with the 
insect and kill it by corrosion or form a thin film over the breathing pores, this 
suffocating the insect. 

The apple has a large number of insects that prey upon it, but there are 
few, however, that cannot readily be controlled. It is merely a problem of apply- 
ing the necessary knowledge at the correct time of the year. 

Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar 

This is one of the earliest apple pests to appear in the spring. The life 
history is as follows : The moths appear in July and lay eggs in clusters of about 
200 in number, fastened about the twigs by a substance resembling shellac, but 

12 



which is gummy at first. The color of the cluster is dark brown. The eggs 
remain dormant until spring, when the caterpillars hatch and feed upon the 
young foliage, making a web in the crotch of two branches. If there are several 
warm days before the foliage appears, they are apt to hatch earlier and feed 
on the young buds, thereby seriously injuring them. They usually appear in 
May and their nests enlarge as the caterpillars grow until at the end of about 
six weeks they are slightly over an inch and a half long, black in general color, 
and have a white stripe running down the back with a few short, yellow hairs 
on the side. They soon pupate upon reaching this size, and a fortnight later 
emerge as adult moths. 

As soon as the eggs begin to hatch, spray the trees with arsenate of lead 
at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water and they will be easily killed. 
The poison will also kill other insects even though they do not appear at the 
time, for it remains on the leaves for several months. If there is no spray- 
ing apparatus at hand, tie a small bunch of cloth to the end of a pole and 
run it up into the lower portion of the nest and then give a rolling motion so 
that the threads of the nest will be twisted about the pole and together with 
the caterpillars can be brought down. This is easily done, especially on low- 
headed trees, but care must be taken to do it in early morning while the cater- 
pillars are in their nests. There are several useful parasites, among them the 
ichneuman flies, which pierce the eggs, and also others depositing eggs on the 
bodies of the caterpillars, which on hatching feed upon and kill them. Some 
seasons these parasites are so numerous that they leave no caterpillars to come 
forth the following year, while at other times the conditions are just the opposite. 

The Codling Moth 

The Codling moth is one of the most serious of the insect pests, as it does 
much damage to the fruit. It was imported from Europe about 100 years ago 
and has spread through all sections of the United tates. Each female moth lays 
about so eggs just after the blossoms drop in the spring. She flies from one 
apple to another, depositing one egg in each flower. In about six or seven days 
the eggs hatch and the larvae begin to bore into the apples and there remain 
about four weeks, when they become full grown and eat their way out through 
the apple. The apple frequently drops at this time and the insect crawls on to 
the ground. It then crawls up the bodies of the trees, selecting a sheltered spot 
under the bark, or else hides under fence boards or any rubbish that may be 
lying about in the orchard, and there spins a cocoon. Changing its habit of life 
to the adult moth in about two weeks, it goes forth to lay eggs for a second 
brood or remains in the dormant state until the next spring, according to the 
climate. The eggs for the second brood are laid anywhere on the tree, but most 
of the larvae enter the side of the apple. 

The most effective method of dealing with these insects is to spray the trees 
as soon as the blossoms have fallen with 2 pounds of arsenate of lead, dissolved, 
in 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture. The latter is a fungicide and has no effect 
on the insect, but is used to prevent the foliage and fruit from being attacked 
by the apple scab and other fungi which cause the foliage to fall prematurely 
and the apples to be covered with black spots. This Bordeaux mixture is used 
with the arsenate of lead in the place of clear water to avoid two sprayings. 
The mixture is made as follows : Four pounds of sulphate of copper should be 
suspended by means of a gunny sack at the top of a barrel containing 25 gallons 
of water, allowing it, however, to be totally immersed. It will dissolve in a few 
hours. Four or possibly five pounds of lime are slacked and dissolved in 25 gal- 
lons of water. The two ingredients are then poured together simultaneously in a 
50-gallon barrel. To these 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture the 2 pounds arsenate 
of lead is added, and thus with one operation in spraying both the fungous 

13 



diseases and insect pests are controlled. In making the Bordeaux mixture it is 
important that the lime and copper be diluted separately, as when being poured 
together in the manner described they make the necessary chemical combination, 
remain in solution longer and the spraying can be carried on without having 
the nozzle clog. It is also very essential to get lime that is freshly burned in 
order that it will not have become air slacked. When the young larvae of the 
Codling moth hatch, they generally crawl around in the blossom end of the apple, 
eating as they go. Hence, the smallest particle of poison deposited inside the 
blossom will destroy the worm before it bores into the fruit. Care must be 
taken not to spray the orchard until the blossoms have fallen, for otherwise 
the bees which fertilize them will be destroyed. 

Some eggs are laid on the leaves and twigs, and as a double precaution it is 
necessary to spray the trees with the same mixture within ten or twelve days of 
the first. A third spraying should be given again by the middle or last of July 
to destroy the second brood, which, as has been said before, is common in cer- 
tain localities of the country. The second brood works into the apple from the 
side, generally speaking, hence, at this time, care must be given to spray the 
fruit. As the apples are small at this stage, the poison will wear off before 
harvest time. By spraying with these mixtures at the times recommended, over 
90 per cent perfect fruit may be obtained, while without spraying not over 30 
per cent will be had. 

There are few other biting insects that in some years are quite numerous. 
The bud moth works in the apple buds very early in the spring and destroys 
many of them. The canker worm sweeps over entire orchards periodically, 
eating up all the foliage. In the spring of 1908 this insect was particularly 
numerous. The yellow neck and red humped apple tree caterpillars are apt 
to appear in late autumn. The one effective remedy for all these insects is 
arsenate of lead, the only difference being that 3 or 4 pounds should be used 
instead of 2 pounds. Bordeaux mixture should not be used in the third or last 
spraying generally, as at that time the fruit is beginning to mature and it would 
tend to discolor it somewhat. 

The Fall Webb Worm 

This is an insect that injures the apple trees beginning in the late summer. 
As they make their tent, they are often mistaken for the apple tree tent cater- 
pillar, but they come much later in the season. The moths lay their eggs from 
June to August, according to the climate, and the young caterpillars which hatch 
soon after eat the green matter from the underside of the leaves, skeletonizing 
them, and enlarging their tents as they increase in size and spread over the trees. 
As these caterpillars always remain in their tent and work under it, they cannot 
readily be sprayed, but may be taken out of the tree with a pole as described 
for the treatment for the tent caterpillar, or the infested branches may be cut 
off and burned. The fall web worm is found on many forest trees, especially 
the ashes, but their damage is only slight. 

The Apple Tree Borer 

The flat-headed apple tree borer is responsible for the loss of many young 
trees. It bores in, either at the base or crown of the tree, and is a native pest, 
widely scattered over the country. The adult of this larva is a small beetle, and 
lays its eggs on the bark of a tree. When they hatch in June or July, the larvae 
begin to eat through the bark, often girdling the entire tree. Later the borer, 
with its strong biting jaws, works into the centre of the tree and often going 
upward finally emerges at a different place, escaping in the form of a beetle. 

Trees should be closely examined in June, and if a fine saw dust is found 
at the base of the tree, a soft wire should be run into the hole in order to kill 

14 



the borer. Another effective way to destroy this insect is to inject a small quan- 
tity of bi-sniphide of carbon, with a very small syringe, covering the hole as 
quickly as possible with earth. Being volatile, this liquid will evaporate into a 
gas, bringing death to the insect. By a careful system of cultivation there is much 
less danger from these insects, as many of the eggs are apt to be destroyed. 

The Apple Aphis 

Of the sucking class of insects, the apple tree aphis is one of the most per- 
sistent. By close examination of the bark at the base of the buds, and in the 
crevices of the bark of the twigs, very small oval eggs, black in color, may be 
seen on infested trees. These are the eggs of the apple tree moth. They are 
deposited in late autumn. When the buds begin to swell in the spring the eggs 
hatch and produce very small lice which insert their beaks or sucking tubes into 
the buds and young leaves and subsist upon their juices. The first brood are 
all female and reach their maturity in about ten days, when they give birth to 
living young for a period of two or three weeks. Then they die. 

Each new brood matures in ten days and likewise gives off living young. 
Hence, with several generations, each maturing in ten days, the geometrical 
increase is enormous. By the middle of July many trees will be covered with 
them to the extent of millions. 

The leaves having sap taken from them so readily curl up, dry and drop 
prematurely. Young twigs are very often affected in the same manner. In late 
autumn both males and females are produced, and a stock of fertile eggs is laid 
for the continuance of the species the next year. Plant aphis produce a sweet 
liquid called honey dew which is secreted from a pair of tubes on the posterior 
part of the abdomen. This is used as food for the young and the surplus is 
greedily taken by black ants which are seen running up and down the trees. 
The ants protect the aphis and will vigorously fight for their preservation. They 
have been known to take a species of aphis living upon the roots of corn into 
their quarters and there care for them during the winter, carrying them back 
to the corn fields the next spring. Not until this discovery was made and the 
ant hills destroyed were the enormous losses in the corn crop of our western 
states, prevented. 

To control this insect, the trees should be sprayed as soon as the first brood 
is hatched, using i pound of whale oil soap to 7 gallons of water, drenching the 
trees thoroughly. Some of the best scale destroyers may also be used at given 
rates. If the first brood is destroyed, little trouble or injury will follow, but 
if the matter is delayed, a second and even a third spraying may be necessary. 
The aphis has a large number of natural enemies. Myriads of them are 
destroyed by the lady bird and their larvae as well as by the syrphus flies. 

The San Jose Scale 

The San Jose, or Pernicious scale, is one of the most important insects that 
we have to fight in apple production. It has annihilated fruit industries over 
entire sections of countries. Being a very minute insect it is hard to find. The 
first prominent evidence of its presence in an apple orchard will be found in the 
red ring-like spots surrounding each insect upon the apples when they are ready 
to be picked. By further examination they may be observed upon the branches 
in the form of small, round, conical forms with a dark spot or dot in the centre 
of most of them. They are no larger than half the diameter of the shaft of a 
pin. By scraping them, an oily substance will be observed, and the yellow, soft 
bodies of the insects may be seen. By cutting the bark it will be found to be of 
a reddish color underneath, often extending to the wood. The scale spreads 
with alarming rapidity when it once becomes established, in a few years entirely 
encrusting the branches of the trees. Usually the first brood appears in June, 

15 



and thereafter broods come out frequently day by day throughout the entire 
season. Three or four individual insects in the spring will have millions of 
progeny by autumn. They are carried from tree to tree upon the feet of birds 
while they are in the early stages of their larval life, before the scale begins to 
form over them. They also adhere to feathers of birds. Nursery stock forms 
a method of spreading extremely dangerous. 

The scale lives upon a large variety of trees, including nearly all of the 
fruits, as well as some of the forest trees. They also infest currants, roses, and 
many shrubs. It is not, however, impossible to control them. A combination of 
lime and sulphur has been generally used, and where the application has been 
well made, the results are excellent. Twenty pounds of lime, fifteen pounds of 
sulphur and fifty gallons of water should be boiled for one hour in order to make 
the proper combination. As it has to be applied while hot, or a short time after- 
ward, it is most difficult to use. The materials being caustic, are very disagree- 
able, often burning both the men and the horses. There are several miscible oils. 
some good, some bad, that are now on the market. The advantage of these is 
that they are readily mixed with cold water, and do no damage to the operators. 
There are mechanical mixtures of lime and sulphur now being prepared that 
promise to have equal value as an insecticide, and which may also be used in the 
place of Bordeaux mixture. 

Spraying for the scale should be done in the late autumn, as soon as the 
foliage has dropped from the trees. At this time the covering of the scale is thin 
and hence the material is more effective. Some of these materials penetrate the 
scale coverings and kill by contact, and others form a film cover and kill by 
suffocation. A second spraying in late winter is sometimes necessary. 

The Department of Agriculture has been importing some of the parasites 
of this pest from China, the country from which it was originally imported. 
These have spread considerably in the southern states but as yet have not sur- 
vived the cold of the North. Again comes the demand for the low-headed type 
of tree which can be readily sprayed. With the new and improved apparatus 
for spraying as well as the new compounds which are being perfected, this insect 
may be successfully controlled at a small cost per tree. 

Oyster Shell Scale 

This imported insect came from Europe a century ago, and like many others, 
when introduced into new territory, was found to thrive in a new environment, 
free of its natural enemies. It has spread all over the United States and resem- 
bles the oyster shell in shape, from which it takes its name. Generally they are 
not common on apple trees, or at least not common enough to do serious injury, 
but here and there is found an orchard badly infested. Underneath the scales 
are masses of eggs ranging from 25 to 100 in number. The latter part of May 
or early June the eggs hatch and the young move out toward the smaller 
branches, where they settle down, and insert their beaks in through the bark 
and subsist on the sap of the tree. Like the San Jose, they throw off their moving 
skins as they grow and these form what is known as the scale, and which takes 
the form of an oyster shell. As soon as the insect under the scale becomes adult, 
the eggs are laid in the larger end of the scale. 

To keep these in check, the trees should be sprayed with one pound of whale 
oil soap to 7 gallons of water, or with any of the good scale destroyers now on 
the market. Spraying should be done about the middle of June, and if repeated 
the following year by a second application, there will be but little further trouble 
from the insect. 

The Apple Maggot 

This insect is also known as the railroad work from its habit of working 
throughout the apple making fine discolored lines in all directions. The adult 

16 



is a small fly with a sharp ovipositor. It punctures the apples in July by means 
of this appendage, and deposits the eggs underneath the skin in the pulp of the 
fruit. In the autumn or when the apples fall from the tree, the maggot is ready 
to change. It leaves the apple, burrows into the ground, and there remains in 
the pupa form until the following season when the adult fly appears. There is 
no appearance of its presence until the apples are cut for use, when they reveal 
these discolored lines and spots. As the eggs are deposited under the skin there 
is no way to reach them by spraying. The only known remedy for their control 
is to pick off and destroy all fruit affected early in August before the larvae 
leave the apples. This will prevent their further propagation and spread. It is 
far better to sacrifice one crop or even two than to have them remain in the 
orchard and destroy several crops. It is also well to pick up all the apples that 
fall as soon as possible before the insects have a chance to leave. Anoth<^;r 
excellent practice is to plow the soil in the autumn. This will turn up the pupae, 
the form in which they spend the winter, and they will be quite generally killed 
by winter freezing. If orchards were given more general tillage, many of the 
insects that go to the soil to pass through their pupal stage, would be checked, 
and often exterminated. 

Summary 

While the foregoing description of the few most prominent and injurious 
insects that have to be fought in the culture of the apple may seem somewhat 
discouraging to those who desire to produce fruit, it is really not as great as 
may appear. The apple grower needs but to reflect that he was created with 
unusual power, and man was given dominion over everything, including every 
"creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth," and that it is necessary only to 
assert his superiority and keep the control. If he becomes discouraged and 
allows the insects to acquire dominion over his trees, then the insects have given 
evidence of their superiority. There are, however, generally speaking, only a few 
insects which have to be carefully fought. The Codling moth is present every 
year, and must be sprayed at least twice. The San Jose scale being particularly 
destructive, should be carefully watched and if its presence is detected should 
be sprayed every year. The railroad worm is quite common, but as a general 
thing the other insects are found only occasionally. The owner of a fair sized 
orchard should have a barrel pump equipped with two 75-foot lengths of hose, 
two gas pipe spraying rods 10 feet long, and two nozzles of the best type. With 
one man at the pump and two men spraying, the cost can easily be reduced to a 
low figure for codling moth, but somewhat more for scale spraying. The opera- 
tion of spraying is, in itself, not difficult. Care must be taken, however, to use 
a fine, mist-like spray, applying it so thoroughly that it will not skip a leaf, or if 
done in winter, a twig, and yet so carefully that the solution will not drop from 
the leaves any more than is necessary. 

The Handling of Apples 

Important as is the cultural work, such as the control of insects, pruning, 
and fertilizing, there is yet an equally important part, namely, the handling. 
Upon this depends largely the value to be realized. Many good apples are 
grown, but from that time on they are frequently depreciated in value on account 
of poor handling. Good ladders and baskets should be provided where the 
fruit is to be gathered from high standard trees. If possible, purchase basswood 
ladders, as these are light and strong. The pine and spruce ladders ordinarily 
used are from 18 to 20 feet long and are too heavy for general work, as the 
pickers often let them fall against the trees, knocking off and bruising the fruit. 
Local hardware dealers can easily supply orchardists with what is known as the 
topping ladder. Baskets holding a half bushel are generally used, 

17 



The pickers should begin at the lower branches of the tree, working upward 
to the top. The baskets should be supplied with strong iron or wire hooks such 
that they can be hung on the rounds of the ladder or on the branches of the tree 
and thus be kept close to the picker. The actual operation of picking is impor- 
tant, and one should turn the apple up in the opposite direction from which it 
hangs instead of pulling it from the tree. By the former method they should 
easily break from the fruit spur without damage to the spur itself. If, however, 
the stems break- and the apples do not come off readily, they are not sufficiently 
matured and should be left a few days longer. The opinion is quite general 
that apples should be picked before they are fully matured in order that they 
may keep well, but this is incorrect. They should be allowed to remain until 
they have obtained their natural high color. Fruit that is allowed to get this color 
and be well matured on the trees is not only very much finer in flavor, but will 
keep better and longer. For instance, a bright red and yellow Northern Spy 
is tender, crisp, and most delicious in its flavor, but one that is green or only 
partly colored is insipid and unsatisfactory. In handling apples, they should be 
placed in the basket and not thrown into them by the picker. They should 
then be carefully turned from the baskets into the boxes or packages and car- 
ried into the packing room. Bags hung over men's shoulders are sometimes used 
in the picking, but they are objectionable, as the fruit is more or less bruised 
from this method. 

Apples should never be put in piles on the ground, as is too generally the 
custom when the crop is being harvested. The reason for this is that the earth 
is still warm from the summer temperature and where great piles of fruit are 
made the heat passing from the earth up through them forces further ripening, 
and as a result the fruit will not keep as long as otherwise. It is preferable to 
sort and pack them as soon as they are picked and keep them in as cool a place 
as can be provided in some well ventilated building, or else put in cold storage. 
In carrying them from the orchard to the packing room, it is advisable to put 
them in bushel boxes, as in this way they may be hauled quickly and easily. 

Packing and Packages 

In the marketing of apples, the package in which they are placed determines 
to a great extent the value that will be realized from them. The great bulk of 
apples grown are packed and shipped in barrels. For many years the cost of a 
barrel was 25 to 28 cents, but these prices have been steadily advancing, and in 
late years the price has been from 40 to 50 cents each. Barrels are desired by the 
general trade, the commission salesmen and grocers who sell the apples in small 
quantities, and they are also extensively used in export shipping. 

Boxes are preferred by the fancy fruit dealers and those who sell only the 
finest apples, and this is the trade which brings the greatest net returns. For a 
long time boxes could be obtained for 10 cents, but they have now advanced to 
16 cents. The size of the box most generally used is of the following inside 
dimensions: 9 inches deep, 18 1-2 inches long, and 11 3-4 inches wide. The 
end pieces are 5-8 of an inch thick, and the sides in one piece 1-2 of an inch 
thick, while the tops and bottoms are in two pieces, 5-8 of an inch thick. A box 
this size will hold 40 pounds of fruit, or very nearly one bushel. 

Packing Apples 

Careful packing requires care, knowledge and skill which is too little under- 
stood and practiced by many fruit growers. First the apples should be evenly 
graded. For this purpose a so-called grading table is desirable, and the apples are 
turned into it as they come from the orchard. These tables are of various forms, 
but a simple plan is as follows : Make a table 12 feet long, 40 inches wide, and 36 
inches high, securely braced so that it will be perfectly firm. On the centre of the 

18 



table erect a light frame running the full length of the long way, i6 inches wide, 
and i6 inches high. Divide this frame by cross pieces into seven compartments 
each about 20 inches long. On these rectangles above the table 20 by 16 inches 
tack pieces of gunny cloth or grain sack so that pockets will be made. Men or 
women on one side of the table sort the apples according to their perfection into 
the various pockets, while those on the other side are required to pack them 
either in boxes or barrels according to grade. 

If the apples are packed in barrels there should be two sizes — one running 
from medium to large and the other smaller. All should be free from blemishes 
and defects. 

In starting to pack a barrel, the fruit should be faced by placing on the 
head of the barrel, which is upside down, a good average selection with the stem 
end next to the head; in other words, upside down, so that when the barrel is 
finally open the fruit will look uniform and attractive. The same grade and 
quality should then be put in the barrel until it is filled, shaking the barrel occa- 
sionally that the apples may settle closely and firmly together. When the barrel 
is filled, the fruit should project one inch above the end. After placing the 
bottom pieces over the fruit a barrel header should be used. This device has a 
screw on the top that puts heavy pressure on the fruit, so that there is no possible 
moving of the apples after the barrel is closed. The apple header would appar- 
ently bruise and crush the fruit, but they are not in any way injured, as they 
have certain elasticity. When the header is screwed down, the bottom of the 
barrel may be nailed down securely and the header removed. It is well to place 
corrugated pasteboard on the inside at each end of the barrel, as it will often 
keep the fruit from being injured. 

To pack in boxes, it is necessary that more grades should be made, and only 
selected fruit should be put into these. The selected grades should run according 
to the variety. Four tiers to the box if extra large apples are used would make 
three and a half tiers packed, while the next grade would make five tiers. Each 
apple should be wrapped in plain white newspaper cut in sizes to fit each 
grade, from eight to eleven inches square. With skillful packers the wrap- 
ping and placing in boxes is done rapidly and the cost should not exceed 6 cents 
per box. Much of it is done at the cost of 5 cents per box. In covering the 
boxes a heading table is used, for which an iron frame is constructed with two 
arms that project across the end of the box, and with the aid of a foot lever 
and spring the cover is squeezed down and nailed. Corrugated pasteboard 
pieces are used at the top and bottom of the box inside. 

In packing a policy of absolute honesty in adhering to a uniform grade and 
quality should be strictly maintained. The facing of barrels or boxes with fine 
fruit and filling the middle of the package with inferior quality, is a fraud which, 
whether perpetrated by a grower or a dealer, should be as severely punished as 
for the forging of a note or for obtaining money under any form of misrep- 
resentation. The extent to which this dishonest packing of fruit has been prac- 
ticed has been a serious injury to both the growers and consumers of apples. 
It is generally done by adventurers or speculators who have no reputation to 
lose. First class dealers of fruit insist upon standard packing, for they under- 
stand the necessity of maintaining the confidence of their customers ; likewise, 
the grower needs to maintain the confidence of the dealer. 

Utilizing Waste Fruit 

There is always a certain amount of fruit that is unfit for the market. Wind 
storms frequently blow off large quantities, and usually this grade will not pay 
for shipping. These may be made into vinegar or jelly or may be evaporated. 

If there is an evaporator near by, this class of apples may be sold. If there 
is no outlet in this way, portable cider mills and presses may be used, making 

19 



the waste fruit into vinegar. Since the pure food legislation has gone into effect, 
pure cider vinegar is used more freely and brings much better prices than when 
cheap adulterations were made and sold. 

In order to make vinegar, a good room is required where the cider may be 
kept until it ferments enough to possess the required amount of acid. The room 
should be moderately warm, and have a free circulation of air. Cider may be 
boiled or evaporated and made into jelly. A rather better grade of apples is used 
for this purpose. There are small portable dry houses made for small quantities, 
but especially where there are many windfalls, a larger building may be neces- 
sary. If a large evaporator may be reached, it is better for the individual fruit 
grower to sell his apples than to attempt to evaporate them himself. Where there 
are large orchards on an individual farm, an inexpensive building may be erected 
that will evaporate from 75 to 150 bushels a day, and the cost of such a building 
will range from $900 to $1,200. If one is contemplating the construction of such a 
building, it would be well for him to go to the apple growing section where such 
buildings are numerous and obtain plans for the same. When apples are 
very abundant and prices low, the entire crop is sometimes shaken from the 
trees and evaporated. There is a difference in the amount of dried apples that 
the different varieties will produce, ranging from 6 to 9 pounds to the bushel of 
white fruit, and this usually sells at from 6 to 7 cents a pound. The skins and 
cores are also evaporated, and these are largely exported to France, where they 
are converted into cider, vinegar, jelly, and sometimes champagne, selling for 
I 1-4 to I 1-2 cents a pound, while the small apples, chopped, sell for 2 to 2 1-2 
cents a pound. 

Storing of Apples 

It is important that some provision be made for the storing of fruit, both 
for home use and for marketing. Storage facilities make it possible to distribute 
the fruit over a large territory, thereby preventing an over stocking of the mar- 
ket. By means of this, fruit may be stored for many months until the following 
spring. 

Where there is a large local apple growing industry the members would do 
well to establish a local cold storage building at their shipping station and put 
their apples into it as soon as they are packed. If this is not possible, it is well 
for individual growers, producing several car-loads, to ship direct to a large 
cold storage house in the city. This places the fruit where it can be quickly 
taken out and sold when the market is most favorable. The temperature in 
these storage houses is kept exceedingly uniform, varying not more than one-half 
to one degree for months at a time. Refrigerator cars are used to avoid high 
temperatures and dangers of delays when the fruit is on the railroad. 

Consumption of Apples 

There is a constantly increasing consumption of apples. The fruit may be 
used in so many ways, that it is always in favor as long as it will last. There 
is too great a difference, however, between the price which the grower receives 
and that which the consumer has to pay. The broker or the dealer adds the cost 
of transportation and a reasonable profit to the price the grower receives. The 
retailer adds his profit and the consumer has to pay generally an advance of 200 
per cent over the value which the grower received. The retailer has to run the 
risk of loss from decay, but if instead of asking such high prices, he asks less, 
larger and quicker sales would result to the benefit of the grower, the retailer and 
the consumer. It is hoped that a better equilibrium may be established in this 
trade in the near future. 

Pleasure and Profit 

There are few occupations that give more pleasure than that of the care and 

20 



development of an apple orchard. It is always an object of increasing interest 
to watch its growth from year to year as the trees expand in size, to direct them, 
mould and shape them into beautiful form, catch the beauty and fragrance 
of the first blossoms, and finally to gather the perfect fruit, and experience the 
satisfaction of having had intelligent control over every element that has con- 
tributed to the perfect results. 

Apple trees may be used much more than they have been in ornamental 
planting and in landscape work, as they form a most attractive setting about 
the suburban house. They may be also used in border planting, and massed and 
grouped in ways to obtain beautiful color effects, when in full fruit. Their blos- 
soms, too, are unexcelled for beauty. They may also be planted in a thousand 
places on the farm, and every one of them will help the general farm income. 

The profit in the culture of apples is determined by the amount of intelli- 
gence and skill that are employed. The soil and trees are both responsive to 
good treatment. There has been outlined above a general system to be followed. 
It may seem to the prospective grower that there is much to cope with; on the 
other hand, there will be found a most satisfactory return for all money, labor 
and time wisely expended. 

An investigation made in 1898 concerning the value of land used for orchard 
purposes gave some interesting facts. Twenty farms in western New York 
upon which the orchards were considered a secondary interest and were given 
no special care or attention, produced on an average of $85 per acre for the 
apples. This was for a period of five years, and during two years of the five, 
no apples were borne by the trees. One where better care was given produced 
$110 per acre as an average for the five years, another produced $140 and in one 
year produced $700 worth of fruit per acre. During the years of 1906-7 there 
are records of $1,000 income from an acre, of which 35 per cent had to be 
deducted for cost of cultivation, spraying, picking and barreling. Taking the 
lowest income that was received, namely, $85 per acre per year, the net annual 
profit exceeded the value for which much excellent land may be purchased. 
There are many thousands of acres of good land that can be bought for $20 to 
$70 an acre. These will furnish homes and work for many who have a love for 
nature as well as a desire to engage in congenial work and by it to secure a sure 
and satisfactory income. 

To the readers of this course the Boston Naturebureau offers its aid in 
helping the owner of an orchard to do the work in the best manner. It will 
cheerfully give such advice and instruction as is possible where and how to get 
the best and cheapest supplies for the work, how to obtain further needed in- 
formation, and to work out the highest degree of success with one or with many 
trees. 



21 



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